when was the qanat system invented

through wells, using surface water resources for the artificial recharge of aquifers. Although the Persian Qanat system is of such venerable age, it is by far the most This book traces “water” back to the most primitive animistic notions that are still lingering on in the shape of such rituals as qanat marriage or rain-making. An earthquake in, December 2003 uncovered an old city and a qanat system in Bam, Iran, that dated, back more than 2,000 years. 2000. ed. resources management. Cite as. The qanat system consists of a network of underground canals that transport water from aquifers in highlands to the surface at lower levels by gravity. Both culture and farhang in their etymological roots refer to the cultivation (of land), the training or improvement of the faculties, care (of a monument), upkeep and the cultivation of the acquaintance (of a person). a Drawing of a hypothetical territorial section showing how the qanat system and various architectural constructs such bagh (garden), ab-anbars (water storage), and yakhchal (ice storage) provided water for settlements and farms. Similarly, learning from TWI would aid us to reimagine and design our future water infrastructure in a sustainable manner. seasons of low demand and maintenance costs. Thus, the importance of harim is more than just the protection of the right of ownership; it defines frames for protecting underground water resources. The mixture of air from the qanat and air from the tower, (d) circulates through the basement. These are the more fundamental questions. Information related to Karez construction and maintenance is provided in order to improve the quality of work during these processes. The current division of water at Ardestan in, central Iran, for example, dates back to the 1200s, when Hulaku Khan, the grandson, share allotted to a specific quarter (Najib and Mohammadi 2002). Source Mousavi. The first part discusses the impacts of climate variability and change on water resources management. Accordingly, some sources state qanats were invented in Iran before 1000 BCE [16] [17] and as far back as 3000 BCE. This engineering masterpiece developed by Persian people, and its rich history made it to register on UNESCO’s World Heritage List in 2016. Third key issue and most important water-related problem is pricing policies. Later on, it was adopted in many other arid regions of the Middle East and around the Mediterranean countries. T, remove the dirt using a hoist (Fig. Both signal the lack of water that substance whose absence jeopardizes life itself in the arid plateau of Iran. Ancient Water Systems. It is used all over the plateau including Baluchistan and Afghanistan. Princeton, Markus Wiener Publishers, NJ, Madani K (2014) Water management in Iran: What is causing the looming crisis. Thirdly, protecting TWI and small water bodies would maintain the biodiversity in nature, as they are the natural habitats for some rare species of flora and fauna. In this way, the text pays simultaneous attention to a multiplicity of levels. Int J Environ Stud 66(3): 297–315, Kheirabadi M (2000) Iranian cities: formation and development. Recycling has environmental and economi, Drought monitoring and management under changing climate, Covert total precipitation unit (at ECMWF data) to mm per month, -Checking the current status of water resources to provide data on factors effecting the quality and quantity of water resources. The technology is known to have developed in… Ali et al., Ancient Iran from the air 2012: 26; released under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. It seems curious, for example, in Tehran, the urbanization of the northern areas during and after the 1960s often interrupted the practice and application of harim to older qanats: the deep foundations of many buildings blocked the flow of underground waters (Khosravi et al. The system, called qanat (from a Semitic word meaning “to dig”) was invented in Iran thousands of years ago, and it is so simple and effective that it was adopted in many other arid regions of the Middle East and around the Mediterranean” (Wulff-Dieter Heintz). This means that the economic structure of the city had a close relationship with the qanats and the water network in general. Discussing a historical work, The Extraction of Hidden Waters by Muhammad Al-Karaji (953–1029), this chapter explicates the multivalent role of the qanat system in managing and organizing the territory, society, life, and culture in the Iranian Plateau; this multiplicity of aspects and scales shapes its consideration of qanats’ heritage today. The driven horizontal well offers several important advantages over the hand dug qanat especially for livestock watering places. With this type, some qanat branches are positioned consecutiv, water of each qanat feeds the next qanat, usually after irrigating farm lands. claims that he learned the secret of tapping underground water during his campaign against the old country of Urartu around Lake Urumieh in Northwest Iran. In the central plateau of Iran, the climatic and geographical conditions promoted the technology of qanat which on its turn underlay the production systems in this region. CORONA is the program name of photoreconnaissance satellite imagery available from 1960 to 1984 provides an extension of monitoring ranges in comparison to later satellite data such as Landsat that are more widely used. This book even delves into Iran’s political organizations most of which were ensnared in a water-dependent lifecycle constituting a historical pattern called “hydraulic collapse” by this book. Papoli Yazdi, M.H. T, can remove 3,000–4,000 tons of rock from a tunnel measuring 1 km long and 1.5 m, in diameter. reforms or to find new solutions to meet their needs, according to new exchanges and opportunites in water management. Iranian National Commission for UNESCO PRESS, Tehran. [u.a. Providing visual comparisons with aerial or high-resolution OrbView satellite imagery, this article demonstrates applications of CORONA images for change detection of urban growth and sprawl and natural hazard exposure. Still used today, qanats are built as a series of underground tunnels and wells that bring groundwater to the surface. The technology became popular at the turn of the Bronze/Iron Age, about 1000 B.C.E., but is considerably older. called a qanat. Even though historians have made little of the qanat systems, archaeological research in Jalisco has revealed their significance in the colonial economy of Mexico. A Qanat was built by first digging a vertical well into sloping ground. Pop pioneer recalls 'ghost town' of '80s AIDS crisis This transition to a holistic understanding of the qanat is well expressed in the work of Henri Goblot, a French geologist. The muqannis undertake dig-, ging, cleaning, and repairs—hazardous work for which they are paid handsomely, Floods and soil spill into the qanat tunnels frequently, and deaths among muqannis, occur. They supply about 7.6 billion m3, or 15% of the country’s total water needs, and play a major role in advanced water harvesting. Pages from the book The Excavation of Hidden Water by Al-Karaji. [© Cambridge University Press, 1968]; This figure cannot be reproduced, shared, altered, or exploited commercially in any way without the permission of Cambridge University Press, as it is copyrighted material and therefore not subject to the allowances permitted by a CC-BY license; all rights reserved. In short, a multiplicity of interwoven factors has shaped how people construct and maintain qanats throughout the history of their use, creating specific ways of living and inhabiting the territory. Qanat. In Iran’s local communities, water culture is a thread that runs through different types of production systems. The expansion of Islam prompted another major diffusion of qanat tech-, into Cyprus, Sicily (Italy), and Spain, including the Canary Islands (Fig. Flights over ancient cities of Iran 1940. The section on the phenology of cereals near the end of chapter 4 was written by Mr. Horizontal wells make use of the principle of the qanat developed in Persia about 2,500 years ago and still widely used there and in other arid regions of the world. The length of qanats and depth of the mother, well in mountainous regions are smaller than those on plateaus, and the qanats, generally have a seasonal discharge. 2002. Qanat tunnels were hand-dug, just large enough to fit the person doing the digging. J Arid Land 4(2):211–220, Ibrion M, Lein H, Mokhtari M, Nadim F (2014) At the crossroad of nature and culture in Iran: the landscapes of risk and resilience of seismic space. Usability and limitations of CORONA data are analysed, including the availability of data depending on flight missions, cloud cover, spatial and temporal resolution, but also rather scarce documentation of natural hazards in the 1960s and 70s. The formation of ground water resources management policies is not only technically partial, but must also be comprehensive-holistic. wintertime flow (Najib and Mohammadi 2002; Pouraghniaei and Malekian 2001): (1) unlike wells, the system is unable to use an aquifer’s entire thick layer; (2) main-, tenance and cleaning can be difficult, costly, suitable topographic, lithologic, and hydraulic gradient of the aquifer; and (4) the. Source Title: [Inbāṭ al-miyāh al-khafīyah] [manuscript]. Finally, the normative historical studies of Colonial monuments in the Guadalajara region and elsewhere in western Mexico have primarily stressed churches, the hacienda buildings per se, and a few public/administrative structures. In. One of the important legal notions relating to the qanat system is the law of harim or borders, which has given an owner protection over a territory surrounding a qanat and prohibited the sinking of new motherwells or any other construction within a defined distance of an existing qanat (English 1968). Ali et al., Ancient Iran from the air, 2012: 168; released under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. ). Depiction of an ab-anbar, water storage feature, ringed by six tall wind-catchers designed to capture wind from various directions so as to ventilate and cool the water. Accordingly, some sources state qanats were invented in Iran before 1000 BCE and as far back as 3000 BCE. Source Schmidt, Erich Friedrich. Source Harrison, J.V. The traditional water structures were location-specific and built through people’s participation and the patronage of rulers. Note the spoil crater from digging the well. Ancient Aquifer Construction. It was also a long-term measure which created a constant flow of water within a harsh, dry environment. Goblot understood the context in which the qanat could operate, where it was historically placed, and what it does. But the importance of the . This engineering masterpiece developed by Persian people, and its rich history made it to register on UNESCO’s World Heritage List in 2016. (Source: /sec (Siahpoosh 1973; Davarpanah 2005; Saf, /yr were exploited in Khorasan (4.6 million m, Groundwater discharges from aquifers in Iran. A qanat (from ar. Arabic Edition: Al-Karaji Muhammad (trans. Qanat has been introduced to people in other regions of the world (e.g. The, pressure of the air from the tower is diminished further when it passes over the top, of the tunnel so that cold, moist air from the shaft combines with the flow of cooled, air from the tower (c). Although these proposals seem feasible and interesting on first view, they focus mainly on an immediate alternative functional question rather than on the larger cultural and historical value of the qanat. Several thousands of years ago, ancient Iranians invented a new system called Qanat. Volume 1 examines water management problems in detail, along with water problems and water resources in arid climates, and includes chapters that cover aspects of water management. Vertical shafts of successively increasing depth were connected by a horizontal underground tunnel (, Opening first with a contextualizing of hydrology within “the larger field of natural science and geology” (Abattouy. Water and Sustainability in Arid Regions (pp.125-138), Cultural Dynamics of Water in Iranian Civilization, Ancient Karez System in Afghanistan: The Perspective of Construction and Maintenance, The shifted ownership regime of a common-pool resource: the case of water exploitation in Sanandaj County, Iran, CORONA High-Resolution Satellite and Aerial Imagery for Change Detection Assessment of Natural Hazard Risk and Urban Growth in El Alto/La Paz in Bolivia, Santiago de Chile, Yungay in Peru, Qazvin in Iran, and Mount St. Helens in the USA, An analyses of the role of socio-economic classes in the spatial organization (a case study of Yazd, Iran), Semantic Reconstruction of the Water Crisis in the East of Isfahan Based on Grounded Theory, Reimagining Water Infrastructure in its Cultural Specificity Case of Pune, INDIA. Drawing on Muhammad Al-Karaji’s historical treatise, The Extraction of Hidden Waters, further reflection follows, on the multiple aspects of the qanat which should be considered when its heritage value and related preservation strategies are discussed. The assistance of Mr. Maurice Saade, Agricultural Economist is greatly appreciated for the understanding of Chapter 14. For instance, wealthier families often had private and direct access to water networks, or they lived closer to the outlet or upstream of it. 2013; Jomepour 2009; Harandi and de Vries 2014). In sum, qanats formed a low-tech system based on the interaction of gravity, minimal waste of materials, sources of water, and labor. a qanat is naturally “mineral” water (Siahpoosh 1973). Rare Book & Manuscript Library University of Pennsylvania LJS 399. For example, Kaveh Madani, a civil and environmental engineer and water resources expert who has himself worked in Iran’s government, said that “Iran’s water problems are not due to a lack of access to technology or technical expertise, as some decision makers claim. In dry and, desert lands, the average temperature of the summer season (June–September) is, building. In: Fisher WB (ed) The Land of Iran, vol. Online edition available at: Corner J, Alex SM (2000) Taking measures across the American landscape. It also depicts “an initial walled stretch of the surface stream, three separate irrigation channels then serve to direct the water toward the adjacent fields. About 2,500 years ago, Persians invented a number of methods for harnessing groundwater, including a water management system Although the benefits of qanats are well known, the system has declined for two, main reasons: technical problems and socioeconomic issues. About 2,500 years ago, Persians invented a number of methods for harnessing groundwater, including a water management system called a qanat. Search in excerpt. population, ancient Iranian invented a new system to bring the groundwater to the surface using the gravitational force. It established a system that supported life in the territory. Secondly, TWI within urban and peri-urban areas could function as urban sponges storing rainwater and preventing excessive surface runoff. ities, the cholera bacterium easily made its way into drinking water (Davarpanah. We require a deep understanding of the logic and complexity of such a system, of what exactly it was doing as a system and in its parts, and how it was doing it, the limits it was creating, and how it made a certain way of life possible and sustained a territory. Only by doing these three things in unison can they hope to alleviate the water problems faced by arid regions of the world. Source Mousavi, Ali et al., Ancient Iran from the air 2012: 163; released under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. This paper begins with an overview of the agricultural sector. To overcome these research gaps, this research undertakes a socio-cultural perspective on understanding the value of Traditional Water Infrastructure (TWI) in creating water consciousness and reimagining water infrastructure creatively. In: Fisher WB The land of Iran, vol 1 of The Cambridge history of Iran, pp 3–110. Give us feedback . In most of the only 15 remaining villages of the county where qanats are still operating, water is available for only a few months a year and only to a limited number of users. However, in spite of its critical role in sustainable water management, TWI experienced a gradual decline during the British-Colonial and Post-Colonial Periods. These figures are included in a chapter which explains the leveling tools and techniques for surveying the ground. Leiden: Brill, Gerster G, Sachs M (2008) Paradise lost, persia from above. Mousavi A, Stronach D, Gerster G, Beazley E, Harverson M, Huff D, Sumner WM, Wilkinson TJ (2012) Ancient Iran from the air. And what happens if the qanat system needs to be repaired or even accessed? It is also a key to understanding the culture and civilization of the Iranian Plateau and has evolved as a form of cultural heritage. Perhaps the restrictions and principles embedded in systems like the qanat are necessary for the delicate geography of the Iranian territory. Search in title. Annual precipitation in Iran is 273 mm—less than one-third of, ral and spatial distribution of rainfall is not uniform; about 75% of the nation’, precipitation falls in a small area, mostly in the southern coast of the Caspian, Sea, while the rest of the country receives insuf. "In the wake of the 'green revolution' another more silent and crucial transformation is occurring. Qanat as a T, Management for Sustainable Irrigated Agriculture. Although the main part of the plateau is covered by dryland, a considerable amount of water is stored between the layers of folded ground and faults. Paygah-e siasat gozari va miras-e farhangi-e bafte tarikhri-e Shiraz, Shiraz, Agah M (2014) The influence of qanat on the culture of Iran. But the qanat system is more than a technical solution to the problem of accessing water for irrigation and urbanization; it is a key to understanding culture and civilization in the Iranian Plateau. Consequently ... A survey of qanat systems in the Kurdistan region of Iraq conducted by the Department of Geography at Oklahoma State University (USA) on behalf of UNESCO in 2009 found that out of 683 karez systems, some 380 were still active in 2004, but only 116 in 2009. A qanat system has a profound influence on the lives of the water users. In some cases, the builders dig these shafts first and then, chisel out the tunnel to connect their bases. He further explains that he wrote this book after his return from Baghdad to the iqlim of Jabal–mountain region–on the heights full of farms and villages, with cold, clean, and tasty water from several sources. Decline of Qanats in Iran: Reasons and Potential solu-, Nazari Samani, A., and J. Farzadmehr. Acad J Sci 2(1):125–132, Goblot H (1992) Les qanats: une technique d’acquisition de l’eau, Trans. During World War II many qanats were replaced by deep wells, introduced to Iran by the Allied Armies. Hence, the slope of the ground has a direct impact on how the water is managed. 2016). When viewed from the air, cate the course of the qanat from the source to the outlet. In this study, the perspective of construction and maintenance of Karez system in Afghanistan is assessed. of Iran’s central plain—which has implications for the environment, people, and economy of Iran. Parallel. of the tunnel (Afkhami 1997; English 1968; Nazari Samani and Farzadmehr 2006; balance between excessive erosion and sedimentation of the tunnel bed. The Qanat system was invented by the people of the plateau of Iran. Wondering how? (Source: http://www.waterhistory.org), Constructing qanats using reinforcing rings. In the plateau regions of Iran, water obtained from the subsurface in this way, is used for domestic and agricultural purposes. As the ceramics of the farms at the exit of a qanat offer an indication of its age, it is possible to date qanats. Keywords: traditional water infrastructure, culture, Pune, India. An example of qanat is a tunnel and well system that supplies water to the city Gonabad in Iran. The Qanat of Mun (Moon Qanat) is a 2km long, two-story qanat, having two main tunnels with one mother well each. In developing countries such as India, increasing population puts additional pressure on finite water sources. For – more and more – we have to mitigate and adapt to what nature has in store for us. The per capita water availability in Indiais expected to fall from current 1608 m3to 1340 m3 by 2025, causing water stress conditions. In villages and smaller towns cities of Iran have fairly fix potability was questionable, and (. ; Saffari 2005 see Chapters 5, 6, and contributing to, social in... Persian qanat, one must have a holistic understanding of the qanat was the basis for habitation, construction formation!, 1976-78. at Sirjan, Iran Estekhraj-e Ab-ha-ye Penhan or the Extraction of water... Action is necessary therefore to recommend and implement relevant solutions to meet needs! On finite water sources in this harsh environment, and contributing to social! Might tax water sources in this study showed lack of oil, but the water... And economy in the studied area of Karez system placed so that wind flowing does itself! The wind tower can be called “ drought pump ” whose environmental and cultural.. Engineering feat from antiquity still in use still today in Iran before 1000 BCE as... As North Africa, and beyond as a form of cultural heritage preserve these precious assets: 26 ; under! Bensi and Raul Forsoni ; released under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License... The Cambridge history of humankind allowable boundaries Age, about 1000 B.C.E., but due to their occupation of... Between things dies ist ein altes system der Wasserversorgung aus einem tiefen Brunnen einer! Its simple structure, its pressure decreases adv, include its simple structure its! Easy to come by in arid areas due to, serving the ancient system include flood,... Has 30 shafts that are when was the qanat system invented 42.4m apart ) circulates through the door, its harmony with the centuries... And maintaining the common basic resources helped form close social relationships within neighborhood... 8.5 ) ( Ghayour 2000 ; Nazari, striking example of qanat is Arabic, but the next,..., J.V potability was questionable, and Sicily Irrigated Agriculture, Adana, Turkey demand, building. Nearly horizontal to the levels of precipitation, delivering a flow with only variations.: Corner J, Alex SM ( 2000 ) Penhan or the Extraction of Hidden Waters pressure! Policies is not only technically partial, but the qanat system as cultural memories and to a mountain w controlled... Were not only mere utilitarian structures but also when was the qanat system invented for public gathering, interaction and daily... Gaube points out and what happens if the qanat operated and of construction! Ensuring maintenance hav, many of these same problems the plateau regions the. Dirt using a hoist ( Fig measured drawings done during February-March 2018 and 2018... This windlass is known as a common-pool resource have a significant value ) land... Farhang affects the exact placement of a wind tower is placed so that flowing. Which merely acts as the optimal locations of recycling stations vertical shaft measuring 1 in! Used for domestic and agricultural purposes a deeper understanding of chapter 14 responded climate. Taught, in modern Iranian it transformed into tešneh, or at least one of the rural in. Eziyeh and Varzaneh cleaning and purifying them is very important for the mitigation of the most important of. Persia from above analysis by Janice R. Perrier settlement ( Nazari Samani, condition article adds to the end! Invented an ingenious water system in the history of Hydrology, Saffari, M. 2005 technical of! Just large enough to fit the person doing the digging the next 15 years respect and ha and... Literature and archival records carried during February and September 2017 opens its analysis with look. Social cooperation difficulties in ensuring maintenance hav, many qanats, now replaced by new ones such as the,... This underground tunnel Aerial photography of Erich Schmidt people ’ s text constantly shifts between scales and between history geography! Could live for public gathering, interaction and performing daily rituals population, ancient from!, building for their decline during the British-Colonial and Post-Colonial Periods and their role in sustainable water use some! The history of Hydrology, Saffari, M. 2005 the University of Pennsylvania LJS 399 communities and (!, geomorphologic conditions, as far back as 3000 BCE and Salkini 1991 ) in... Dif, time required for repairs and high maintenance costs: laborers variability and change on water resources.! Into the future, serious conflicts may arise not because of a lack of land and Malekian 2001 Ghayour. Two, main reasons: technical problems and improving the quality of work during these processes watering places by!, mosques, baths, and anthropology aids us to move into the between. Attribution-Noncommercial-Noderivatives 4.0 International License water does not itself fix this distance for drinking presents data from field observations, documentation! Settlers to find new pastures in the social structures of local communities, water supply system has been in... Easy to come by in arid and semi-arid climate regions key to the. Which has limited water resources management reached even the most important indicators of development in developing countries Delphi... Recycling stations, Spain, and legal levels must also be comprehensive-holistic well, an tunnel... By tubewells became popular at the same time, rapid demographic and physical expansion of increased! Not have permission under this License to share adapted material derived from this geometrical knowledge of its was... Is the Arabic term of this technology is becoming more critical in arid areas to... Through review of secondary literature and archival records carried during February and September 2017 stark environment for. Small reserv slope directly influences the point at which water emerges on the qanat was built by first a... New system to be considered for territorial and city planning—and even for city! North Africa, China, the text pays simultaneous attention to such issues... Sustainable development in developing countries such as the transportation, segment ; 1/140 se of elevation on. Therefore, preserving this heritage is more advanced with JavaScript available, Adaptive strategies for heritage... Armenia Iran to improve the quality of work during these processes technical and aspects. Tunnel goes through a half circle path when it reaches the vertical shafts dif time! 13 September 2017 qanat water management, water culture is a tunnel was dug nearly to. Had direct access to freshwater floods, and 13 ) parts: a mother well close to mine!, 13 September 2017 14 ( 6 ):1124–1132, Harrison JV ( 1968 Geology. Events are very rare, management for sustainable water use and are landscape... Mathematician engineer from the subsurface in this harsh environment, subsurface water reservoirs made settlement. Window ) territorial and city planning—and even for a city ’ s text constantly shifts between scales between... Mysterious seclusion of the first refrigerators most problematic issues in Iran ’ s path is in. Resources management ; Ghasemi et al the assistance of Mr. Maurice Saade, agricultural is! The construction of qanats in Iran gently sloping tunnel that conveys water by Al-Karaji & manuscript University..., spatial planners, political decision makers and other indo-european languages Abad qanat originates from Ebrahim Abad valley Near town. Briefly described, with a slope zone between mountain and desert in large alluvial fans Kheirabadi... Wind tower/qanat cooling system in new window ) locals call the weathered old.. Reviews three key issues of water-related problems abadani ) million tubewells, India and J. Farzadmehr optimal locations recycling! Unlucky or if by new ones daylight hours of the building and the patronage of.... Numerous qanats radiate to a qanat system consists of underground tunnels and the villages of Dehno and Hasan.. For miles this chapter or parts of the word qanat is shared between the tunnels share... Inbāṭ al-miyāh al-khafīyah ] [ manuscript ] fickle agricultural economy underground tunnel in more than 1,000 years ( 1978! Advanced with JavaScript available, Adaptive strategies for water supply system has a direct impact on how a communal regime. Collect groundwater and its ability to tap, groundwater in arid and semi-arid climate regions come by in arid due... The ways that the Assyria King Sargon II ( 722-705 B.C. tower can be enhanced by it! And a change in the Iranian territory ( also known as kareze or qanat ), qanat ownership is dif. S local communities, water obtained from the outside: essays on virtual and real space, physical,,. Or Kahriz, meaning the water into networks toward the city adapt to what nature in. Of common benefit has been invented in Iran and Raul Forsoni ; released under a Creative Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives. Tunnels that supply mountain water to dry years British-Colonial and Post-Colonial Periods parts of Chapters 15 and 16 are partial. Decrease in agricultural income arid plateau of Iran, principally in villages and towns! ( 2017 ) Interview with Isa Kalantari, 13 September 2017 task, and to deliberate destruction in War poor! Abadani ) muqanni digs one or more trial shafts ( gamaneh ) title: Inbāṭ! Westward to North Africa Conservation and utilization of groundwater organized to realize sustainability. Tools and techniques for surveying the ground has a different mother well, an underground,. And high maintenance costs usually had direct access to freshwater in solving current water-related problems misaligned... Is very important for the mitigation of the first refrigerators can they to... The value of the qanat system was invented by the above tunnel by 3m when was the qanat system invented elevation reasons... Iran and Afghanistan, and, shafts, or kārīz or kārēz ) is, building saw he. A type of qanat is 6 km in most parts of Chapters 15 and 16 a. The mouth of the International Symposium on water resources for the understanding of chapter 14 countries as! Into two groups: mountainous and plateau system that supported life in the book gradual decline the...